TYPES OF INTEREST GROUPS
I Traditional
A Goal: to promote interests of its members
B Types:
1. Agricultural, e.g., Grange, American Farm Bureau Federation (nation’s largest)
2. Labor, e.g., AFL-CIO, UAW, Teamsters. Note the decline of union membership in recent years
3. Business, e.g., Chambers of Commerce, National Association of Manufacturers, Business Roundtables
4. Professional, e.g., AMA, ABA
II Nontraditional Protest
A Goal: to protest the status of its members and to convince the government to take remedial action
B Examples: NAACP, NOW, ACT UP, MALDEF
III Single Issue
A Goal: to get government action on one issue
B Examples: Right to Life League, NRA, MADD, PETA
C Polarizing effect of these
IV Public Interest
A Goal: to bring about good policy for society
B Examples:
1. Common Cause: campaign finance reform
2. Public Citizen (Nader group): consumers
3. League of Women Voters
4. Environmental groups (Sierra Club)
C 501(c) (3) groups: tax exempt and cannot be involved in election campaigns. Examples American Cancer Society, Girl Scouts of America
V Ideological
A Goal: to convince government to implement policies that are consistent with their
philosophies
B Examples: Christian Coalition, People for the American Way, ACLU, “think tanks” (Brookings Institute, Heritage Foundation)
VI Governmental, e.g. National League of Cities, National Association of Governors
VII PAC’s
FACTORS INFLUENCING INTEREST GROUP STRENGTH
I Nature of Membership:
A Size
1. More members = more money, more
votes. AARP as an example
2. More members also means greater
cross-pressure among members and
possibly less focus
B Spread, i.e., the degree to which a group’s
membership is either concentrated or
dispersed
C Cohesiveness: degree to which members are
committed to “the cause”, e.g., members
who joined solely for getting a good deal
on life insurance would be less committed
than members who joined because they
deeply believed in “the cause”
D Organizational Structure: centralized or
decentralized
E Leadership
F Resources, e.g., money, expertise, reputation, connections…
FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL PARTIES I Nominate Candidates A Previously: caucuses -- nominating conventions – now primary elections
B Now - with the expansion of primaries, nominating function now seriously lessened. Party leaders no longer control nominations – more candidate-centered politics than party-centered politics.
II Raise and Spend Campaign Funds –
declining importance with the advent of “candidate-centered” campaigns, though soft money has bee increasingly significant.
III Register Voters IV Simplify Decisions for Voters A Provide a ‘shorthand’ through which busy and uninterested voters can base a voting decision – use of ‘party lens’ by voters.
B However, parties often muddle issues with personal attacks. Loyal opposition seeks to unseat majority party, and majority party uses similar tactics to keep power.
V Unify Diverse Interests A Example: FDR’s grand coalition.
B However to appeal to such a wide variety
of party members, party members, parties must avoid taking strong stands – charges of “tweedledee/tweedledum” “not a dime’s worth of difference between the parties”
C U.S. not as party-centered as Western
Europe (‘responsible party system’)
U.S. more of a ‘candidate-centered’ system
VI Act as Moderating Influence on Government
A To win elections, parties must usually
Nominate moderate candidates who appeal to the vast center of American electorate. Fringe elements squeezed out. When parties to nominate people outside the mainstream (Goldwater, McGovern), they pay the price at the polls
B Again, in contrast to the European multi system, where fringe parties and candidates are common.
VII Reduce Diffusion of Power in Government
A In theory, a party brings government
together in order to overcome the systems of separation of powers and checks and balances – parties act as a unifying force.
B In reality, people tend to split their
tickets – divided government
C Office-column ballot facilitates split-
ticket voting (as opposed to party column ballot, which facilitates straight ticket voting).
VIII Provide Patronage A In theory, this should ensure that the
will of the people is carried out
B In reality, vast majority of
government jobs are filled by Civil Service. Plus, appointment of people with political connections has often resulted in corruption and incompetence (Harding’s ‘Ohio Gang’, ‘Palace Guard’)
IX Inform Public through Party Platforms However, few people check platforms, which in any case are often broadly-worded, i.e., like train platforms: “something to get on rather than something to stand on.”
X Provide ‘Loyal Opposition’ (after the ‘honeymoon’ period)
XI Agents of Political Socialization XII Linking Mechanism between People and Government
IMPACT OF POLITICAL PARTIES ON GOVERNMENT
I Congress A Majority party controls all committees B Majority party has chairman on all committees
1. Minority party has a “ranking member” on each committee
2. The ranking member often becomes ther chairman when party control of Congress changes
C Majority party controls key leadership positions
D Staffers are partisan
II Executive Branch
A Nearly all appointments to White House are partisan (“political appointees”). Many go to people form election campaigns.
B Nearly all appointments in other parts of executive branch are partisan
C Development of Civil Service System has greatly reduced party influence over the bureaucracy
III Judicial Branch
-nearly all appointments are partisan
IV State and local governments
A Most state government positions are partisan
B Many local government positions (e.g., school board, city council) are non partisan
INTERESTS GROUPS: Reasons for Growth
I Interest group: group with common interest that
seeks to influence government
II Madison’s dilemma: wanting both liberty & order-allowing people the liberty to form groups
and express their views could destroy the hope
for an orderly society. Political Factions were
inevitable – need to control their effects
III Pluralism: growth of interest groups prevents the concentration of excessive power in the hands of
a few, and thus enhances democracy – rebuttal
that groups do not have equal resources and
equal access
IV Reasons for growth of interest groups
A Tocqueville’s description of Americans as
having a propensity for joining groups
B Economic developments, e.g. farm problems
-- Grange
C Government policies. Whenever government
creates an agency, it creates an entry point
for interest groups, e.g., New Deal and
Great Society programs created agencies –
more groups needed to form in order to
protect their stakes in these agency activities
D Diversity of population – countless social,
racial, economic and geographic cleavages
E Diffusion of power in government. Political
power shared by many – plenty of places in
which a group can argue its case. The more
places there are to influence policy,
the more organizations there will be to
exercise that influence
F Weakness of political parties: when parties
are unable to get things done, interest
groups have filled the power vacuum
G Reforms of the 1970’s that opened up and
the lobbying process, e.g., FECA and the
explosion of PAC’s
H Reaction of conservative & business groups
to what they saw as the excesses of liberal
activism of the 1990’s and 1970’s. These
Groups wanted to have their say, too.
“When the government starts dictating to
you the size of your toilet seat, you better
get someone in Washington to cover your
ass.”
I Interest groups tend to beget interest groups,
i.e., when one group is formed, another may
be formed to counter it
J Technology, e.g., computerized mailing lists
to solicit funds, use of communications
media
LOBBYING I Attempting to influence government. Interest
group lobbying is generally most effective on narrow, technical issues that are not well-publicized
II Functions of lobbyists:
A Influence Government
B Provide information to the Government
C Testify at hearings
D Help write legislation a “third house of
Congress”
III Regulation of Lobbying
A 1946 Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act:
required registration and disclosure, but
was full of loopholes
B Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995:
tightened up registration and disclosure
requirements
C Restrictions on gifts, meals, and expense
paid travel that members of Congress
may receive from lobbyists
IV The Case FOR Lobbyists. THEY…
A Provide useful information to govt
B Provide a means of participation for people
C Provide a means of representation on the
basis of interest rather than geography.
a “linking mechanism” between people
and government.
a “third house” of Congress D Have 1st Amendment protection
E Provide, as Madison points out, “a Remedy”
of curing the evils of faction by
eliminating their causes.
V The Case AGAINST Lobbyists
A Rich & powerful interests-over-represented
B Average & poor people – under-represented
C By safeguarding liberty –equality is sacrificed
D Single issue lobbies contribute to polarization
E Lobbies contribute to diffusion of power,
making it even more difficult for govt
to get things done
F National interest is sacrificed
for narrow interests
EFFECTS OF THE MEDIA ON POLITICS
I Symbiotic relationship between government and the press: journalists need politicians to inform and entertain their audiences, and politicians need journalists for media exposure
II Roles of the media
A Gatekeeper: influence which subjects are of national importance, i.e., help to set national agenda
B Scorekeeper: keep track of, and help make political reputations, e.g., importance attached to Iowa caucuses and New Hampshire primary. Emphasis on horse race element of election sat expense of issues
C Watchdog: scrutinize people, places, and events (e.g., Watergate, Iran-Contra) “Comfort the afflicted and afflict the comfortable.”
III Nature of media influences
A Media companies are businesses, where the main objective is to make money
B Most influential at the agenda-setting phase of the policy making process.
C Provide forum for building candidate images D Act as linking mechanism between government and people:
1. In the past: People– Parties—Government
2. Now: People – Media – Government
E Contribute to higher cost of campaigning
F Contribute to candidate-centered campaigns
G Increase the role of campaign consultants. Instead of parties telling candidates what to say, media consultants report on findings of polls and focus groups and then tell candidates what to say
HHH H White House manipulation of media:
1. Photo opportunities
2. Sound bites
3. Spin control
4. Staged events
I Negative coverage of Congress. Congress seen as obstructionist foil to President.
J Far less coverage of Supreme Court than of Congress and Presidency
K Media most influential 1. In primary elections rather than general elections
2. On undecided voters.
1
POLITICAL ACTION COMMITTEES (PAC’s) I Explosive growth of PAC’s: group that raises Funds for favored candidates A 1974 – 600 PAC’s // today – 4100+
B Reason: legislation that had the intent of
preventing a few wealthy contributors from
helping candidates ‘buy’ elections. Instead-
congress wanted to ‘open up’ campaign
contributions to the masses, as represented
by PAC’s
C FECA FederalEmployees' CompensationAct1974, did just that:
1. Individuals contribute no more $1000
(now $2300 for 2007-8)
2. Individuals contribute $1000 to PAC
(no limit to PAC’s)
3. PAC’s contribute 5x (now 2 1/2x)
what an individual could, and no limit to total number that PAC can
contribute in one year
4. No limit to amount of independent
expenditures that PAC can make
II Explosive growth of PAC contributions
A1972, PAC contributions to congressional
races totaled $8.5 million //
2004 = $384 million
B 50 House candidates raised >$500,000 PACs
apiece in 1998 (only 4 lost)
C 38 Senate candidates raised > $500,000
apiece from PACs in 1998 (7 lost)
D PAC’s even donate to candidates facing
no opposition at all! WHY?
III PAC strategies
A Campaign contributions – factors influencing
Who gets PAC money:
1. Incumbents. (Political party affiliation
Is of little importance) In 2004 79% of PAC money went to congressional incumbents and only 7% went to challengers (14% went to open seat campaigns.)
2. Winners
3. Those who share a similar philosophy
4. Those who are likely to grant access
5. Those in positions of special influence, e.g. party leaders, committee chairs…
6. whether or not a candidate holds a committee seat of special importance to the PAC
7. PAC money makes up a higher % of congressional campaign funds than presidential campaign funds.
B Voter education projects (mailings, fliers,
Commercials)
C Independent expenditures, soft money, issue
Advocacy ads
D “Bundling”
IV Who has PAC’s?
A Corporations ~50% of all PAC’s. largest
Growth in these since 1970’s
B “Nonconnected”
(ideological) organizations ~25%
C Professional/trade/health associations ~15%
D Labor unions ~10%
E Over-representation of upper/upper-middle
Classes and under-representation of the poor
V Dangers of PACs
A Ethical concerns: does a contribution
‘buy’ anything?
B Special access of PAC’s that the average
person lacks
C Drives up the cost of campaigning -more
time spent by Congress on fund-raising
D Over-representation of the wealthy
E Under-representation of those who lack
such representation
F Further incumbency advantage in elections
VI In Defense of PAC’s
A PAC’s provide a means of participation and
representation for the average person
B Without PAC’s perhaps only wealthy could
afford to run for office
C 1st Amendment right to Petition government
D Contributions are nonpartisan
E No conclusive evidence that PAC’s change
congressional votes. Contributions likely
to make a difference in arcane, obscure
issues with little public awareness more than
in issues of major importance with much
public awareness
F PAC’s provide political education
G PAC’s diversify political funding. With over
4100 PAC’s many interests are represented
I Traditional
A Goal: to promote interests of its members
B Types:
1. Agricultural, e.g., Grange, American Farm Bureau Federation (nation’s largest)
2. Labor, e.g., AFL-CIO, UAW, Teamsters. Note the decline of union membership in recent years
3. Business, e.g., Chambers of Commerce, National Association of Manufacturers, Business Roundtables
4. Professional, e.g., AMA, ABA
II Nontraditional Protest
A Goal: to protest the status of its members and to convince the government to take remedial action
B Examples: NAACP, NOW, ACT UP, MALDEF
III Single Issue
A Goal: to get government action on one issue
B Examples: Right to Life League, NRA, MADD, PETA
C Polarizing effect of these
IV Public Interest
A Goal: to bring about good policy for society
B Examples:
1. Common Cause: campaign finance reform
2. Public Citizen (Nader group): consumers
3. League of Women Voters
4. Environmental groups (Sierra Club)
C 501(c) (3) groups: tax exempt and cannot be involved in election campaigns. Examples American Cancer Society, Girl Scouts of America
V Ideological
A Goal: to convince government to implement policies that are consistent with their
philosophies
B Examples: Christian Coalition, People for the American Way, ACLU, “think tanks” (Brookings Institute, Heritage Foundation)
VI Governmental, e.g. National League of Cities, National Association of Governors
VII PAC’s
FACTORS INFLUENCING INTEREST GROUP STRENGTH
I Nature of Membership:
A Size
1. More members = more money, more
votes. AARP as an example
2. More members also means greater
cross-pressure among members and
possibly less focus
B Spread, i.e., the degree to which a group’s
membership is either concentrated or
dispersed
C Cohesiveness: degree to which members are
committed to “the cause”, e.g., members
who joined solely for getting a good deal
on life insurance would be less committed
than members who joined because they
deeply believed in “the cause”
D Organizational Structure: centralized or
decentralized
E Leadership
F Resources, e.g., money, expertise, reputation, connections…
FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL PARTIES I Nominate Candidates A Previously: caucuses -- nominating conventions – now primary elections
B Now - with the expansion of primaries, nominating function now seriously lessened. Party leaders no longer control nominations – more candidate-centered politics than party-centered politics.
II Raise and Spend Campaign Funds –
declining importance with the advent of “candidate-centered” campaigns, though soft money has bee increasingly significant.
III Register Voters IV Simplify Decisions for Voters A Provide a ‘shorthand’ through which busy and uninterested voters can base a voting decision – use of ‘party lens’ by voters.
B However, parties often muddle issues with personal attacks. Loyal opposition seeks to unseat majority party, and majority party uses similar tactics to keep power.
V Unify Diverse Interests A Example: FDR’s grand coalition.
B However to appeal to such a wide variety
of party members, party members, parties must avoid taking strong stands – charges of “tweedledee/tweedledum” “not a dime’s worth of difference between the parties”
C U.S. not as party-centered as Western
Europe (‘responsible party system’)
U.S. more of a ‘candidate-centered’ system
VI Act as Moderating Influence on Government
A To win elections, parties must usually
Nominate moderate candidates who appeal to the vast center of American electorate. Fringe elements squeezed out. When parties to nominate people outside the mainstream (Goldwater, McGovern), they pay the price at the polls
B Again, in contrast to the European multi system, where fringe parties and candidates are common.
VII Reduce Diffusion of Power in Government
A In theory, a party brings government
together in order to overcome the systems of separation of powers and checks and balances – parties act as a unifying force.
B In reality, people tend to split their
tickets – divided government
C Office-column ballot facilitates split-
ticket voting (as opposed to party column ballot, which facilitates straight ticket voting).
VIII Provide Patronage A In theory, this should ensure that the
will of the people is carried out
B In reality, vast majority of
government jobs are filled by Civil Service. Plus, appointment of people with political connections has often resulted in corruption and incompetence (Harding’s ‘Ohio Gang’, ‘Palace Guard’)
IX Inform Public through Party Platforms However, few people check platforms, which in any case are often broadly-worded, i.e., like train platforms: “something to get on rather than something to stand on.”
X Provide ‘Loyal Opposition’ (after the ‘honeymoon’ period)
XI Agents of Political Socialization XII Linking Mechanism between People and Government
IMPACT OF POLITICAL PARTIES ON GOVERNMENT
I Congress A Majority party controls all committees B Majority party has chairman on all committees
1. Minority party has a “ranking member” on each committee
2. The ranking member often becomes ther chairman when party control of Congress changes
C Majority party controls key leadership positions
D Staffers are partisan
II Executive Branch
A Nearly all appointments to White House are partisan (“political appointees”). Many go to people form election campaigns.
B Nearly all appointments in other parts of executive branch are partisan
C Development of Civil Service System has greatly reduced party influence over the bureaucracy
III Judicial Branch
-nearly all appointments are partisan
IV State and local governments
A Most state government positions are partisan
B Many local government positions (e.g., school board, city council) are non partisan
INTERESTS GROUPS: Reasons for Growth
I Interest group: group with common interest that
seeks to influence government
II Madison’s dilemma: wanting both liberty & order-allowing people the liberty to form groups
and express their views could destroy the hope
for an orderly society. Political Factions were
inevitable – need to control their effects
III Pluralism: growth of interest groups prevents the concentration of excessive power in the hands of
a few, and thus enhances democracy – rebuttal
that groups do not have equal resources and
equal access
IV Reasons for growth of interest groups
A Tocqueville’s description of Americans as
having a propensity for joining groups
B Economic developments, e.g. farm problems
-- Grange
C Government policies. Whenever government
creates an agency, it creates an entry point
for interest groups, e.g., New Deal and
Great Society programs created agencies –
more groups needed to form in order to
protect their stakes in these agency activities
D Diversity of population – countless social,
racial, economic and geographic cleavages
E Diffusion of power in government. Political
power shared by many – plenty of places in
which a group can argue its case. The more
places there are to influence policy,
the more organizations there will be to
exercise that influence
F Weakness of political parties: when parties
are unable to get things done, interest
groups have filled the power vacuum
G Reforms of the 1970’s that opened up and
the lobbying process, e.g., FECA and the
explosion of PAC’s
H Reaction of conservative & business groups
to what they saw as the excesses of liberal
activism of the 1990’s and 1970’s. These
Groups wanted to have their say, too.
“When the government starts dictating to
you the size of your toilet seat, you better
get someone in Washington to cover your
ass.”
I Interest groups tend to beget interest groups,
i.e., when one group is formed, another may
be formed to counter it
J Technology, e.g., computerized mailing lists
to solicit funds, use of communications
media
LOBBYING I Attempting to influence government. Interest
group lobbying is generally most effective on narrow, technical issues that are not well-publicized
II Functions of lobbyists:
A Influence Government
B Provide information to the Government
C Testify at hearings
D Help write legislation a “third house of
Congress”
III Regulation of Lobbying
A 1946 Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act:
required registration and disclosure, but
was full of loopholes
B Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995:
tightened up registration and disclosure
requirements
C Restrictions on gifts, meals, and expense
paid travel that members of Congress
may receive from lobbyists
IV The Case FOR Lobbyists. THEY…
A Provide useful information to govt
B Provide a means of participation for people
C Provide a means of representation on the
basis of interest rather than geography.
a “linking mechanism” between people
and government.
a “third house” of Congress D Have 1st Amendment protection
E Provide, as Madison points out, “a Remedy”
of curing the evils of faction by
eliminating their causes.
V The Case AGAINST Lobbyists
A Rich & powerful interests-over-represented
B Average & poor people – under-represented
C By safeguarding liberty –equality is sacrificed
D Single issue lobbies contribute to polarization
E Lobbies contribute to diffusion of power,
making it even more difficult for govt
to get things done
F National interest is sacrificed
for narrow interests
EFFECTS OF THE MEDIA ON POLITICS
I Symbiotic relationship between government and the press: journalists need politicians to inform and entertain their audiences, and politicians need journalists for media exposure
II Roles of the media
A Gatekeeper: influence which subjects are of national importance, i.e., help to set national agenda
B Scorekeeper: keep track of, and help make political reputations, e.g., importance attached to Iowa caucuses and New Hampshire primary. Emphasis on horse race element of election sat expense of issues
C Watchdog: scrutinize people, places, and events (e.g., Watergate, Iran-Contra) “Comfort the afflicted and afflict the comfortable.”
III Nature of media influences
A Media companies are businesses, where the main objective is to make money
B Most influential at the agenda-setting phase of the policy making process.
C Provide forum for building candidate images D Act as linking mechanism between government and people:
1. In the past: People– Parties—Government
2. Now: People – Media – Government
E Contribute to higher cost of campaigning
F Contribute to candidate-centered campaigns
G Increase the role of campaign consultants. Instead of parties telling candidates what to say, media consultants report on findings of polls and focus groups and then tell candidates what to say
HHH H White House manipulation of media:
1. Photo opportunities
2. Sound bites
3. Spin control
4. Staged events
I Negative coverage of Congress. Congress seen as obstructionist foil to President.
J Far less coverage of Supreme Court than of Congress and Presidency
K Media most influential 1. In primary elections rather than general elections
2. On undecided voters.
1
POLITICAL ACTION COMMITTEES (PAC’s) I Explosive growth of PAC’s: group that raises Funds for favored candidates A 1974 – 600 PAC’s // today – 4100+
B Reason: legislation that had the intent of
preventing a few wealthy contributors from
helping candidates ‘buy’ elections. Instead-
congress wanted to ‘open up’ campaign
contributions to the masses, as represented
by PAC’s
C FECA FederalEmployees' CompensationAct1974, did just that:
1. Individuals contribute no more $1000
(now $2300 for 2007-8)
2. Individuals contribute $1000 to PAC
(no limit to PAC’s)
3. PAC’s contribute 5x (now 2 1/2x)
what an individual could, and no limit to total number that PAC can
contribute in one year
4. No limit to amount of independent
expenditures that PAC can make
II Explosive growth of PAC contributions
A1972, PAC contributions to congressional
races totaled $8.5 million //
2004 = $384 million
B 50 House candidates raised >$500,000 PACs
apiece in 1998 (only 4 lost)
C 38 Senate candidates raised > $500,000
apiece from PACs in 1998 (7 lost)
D PAC’s even donate to candidates facing
no opposition at all! WHY?
III PAC strategies
A Campaign contributions – factors influencing
Who gets PAC money:
1. Incumbents. (Political party affiliation
Is of little importance) In 2004 79% of PAC money went to congressional incumbents and only 7% went to challengers (14% went to open seat campaigns.)
2. Winners
3. Those who share a similar philosophy
4. Those who are likely to grant access
5. Those in positions of special influence, e.g. party leaders, committee chairs…
6. whether or not a candidate holds a committee seat of special importance to the PAC
7. PAC money makes up a higher % of congressional campaign funds than presidential campaign funds.
B Voter education projects (mailings, fliers,
Commercials)
C Independent expenditures, soft money, issue
Advocacy ads
D “Bundling”
IV Who has PAC’s?
A Corporations ~50% of all PAC’s. largest
Growth in these since 1970’s
B “Nonconnected”
(ideological) organizations ~25%
C Professional/trade/health associations ~15%
D Labor unions ~10%
E Over-representation of upper/upper-middle
Classes and under-representation of the poor
V Dangers of PACs
A Ethical concerns: does a contribution
‘buy’ anything?
B Special access of PAC’s that the average
person lacks
C Drives up the cost of campaigning -more
time spent by Congress on fund-raising
D Over-representation of the wealthy
E Under-representation of those who lack
such representation
F Further incumbency advantage in elections
VI In Defense of PAC’s
A PAC’s provide a means of participation and
representation for the average person
B Without PAC’s perhaps only wealthy could
afford to run for office
C 1st Amendment right to Petition government
D Contributions are nonpartisan
E No conclusive evidence that PAC’s change
congressional votes. Contributions likely
to make a difference in arcane, obscure
issues with little public awareness more than
in issues of major importance with much
public awareness
F PAC’s provide political education
G PAC’s diversify political funding. With over
4100 PAC’s many interests are represented